Olives are one of the oldest domesticated fruits dating back as far as 6000 BCE and processed olive oil have been an important agricultural product ever since. Extra virgin olive oil or "EVOO," as Rachel Ray popularized, is an essential component of Italian cuisine. Throughout history, golden-colored oil has had many other uses leading it to become a valuable commodity in both the ancient and modern world.
Olive Oil in Ancient Rome
According to Mort Rosenblum, author of Olives: The Life and Lore of a Noble Fruit, it was the Greeks who first brought the fruit to Sicily. The city of Siracusa, on the southeastern coast of the Island, became a major hub of olive commerce, even before the city was conquered by Rome.
As the Roman empire grew, the demand for olive oil grew with it. Oil was essential for cooking, but it was also a large part of Roman bathing practices. They would cover their bodies in oil and then scrape it off with a curved blade known as a strigil. Oil was also burned in lamps for light, used as an industrial lubricant on hinges, wheels, and other moving parts, and as medicine.
The high level of consumption meant Rome was unable to supply itself with all it needed and part of the constant push for expanding the empire included seeking out sources of olive oil. The Roman province of Hispania, modern day Spain, was a major producer of olive oil for the empire. Some of those Roman era trees are still growing and producing olives 2,000 years later.
In Rome, the ancient importation of olive oil trade still mars the landscape. On the south side of the modern city, an eighth hill rises above the working class neighborhood of Testaccio. This hill didn't exist when the city was founded. Testaccio served Rome as the city's port of entry. Ships would navigate the River Tiber hauling goods from across the Mediterranean basin loaded with cargo. In Testaccio, the ships were unloaded and distributed by land, or transferred from ocean going vessels to river vessels.
Olive oil was a major import and it was transported in ceramic jars known as amphorae. However, since ceramic is slightly porous, the jars could not be reused because the oil would eventually turn rancid, spoiling any oil subsequently added to the jar. Instead, the old amphorae simply piled up in a huge landfill. Since about 140 CE, Mount Testaccio has risen above the swampy grounds around it, and stands about 115 feet tall. Today, restaurants and nightclubs have been built into the side of the mountain with the old amphorae visible.
The fall of the Roman Empire also brought with it an end to the dominance of olive oil on the Italian peninsula for close to a millennia. Growing and harvesting olives was labor intensive, something that marauders and invading armies didn't have time for. Northern invaders preferred animal fats like lard and butter to olive oil and these would dominate the cuisine until stability returned in the Renaissance era. Even in northern Italy, animal fat like butter still retains a significant place in the kitchen, while southern Italy primarily relies on olive oil.
Olive Oil Arrives with Italian Immigrants
With the European discovery of the New World, olives migrated to places like California. Spanish conquistadores were the first Europeans to head north from modern-day Mexico, and Italians arrived with them, often as missionaries and priests. In California, they found a climate similar to the one they left back in Italy. These Italians planted olive groves, setting up California as a major producer of olive oil in the 20th century. The industry struggled for years, as did wine and tomato production, two other industries Italians brought to California until the World Wars and tariffs disrupted the supply of products from Italy.
Even though California already had started growing olives and producing oil, during the Italian diaspora, immigrants in the United States were willing to pay higher premiums on olive oil from Italy. In part, products like olive oil were branded as Italian to appeal to the broad group of people who largely still identified themselves by their region and province. In essence, the idea of a national Italian identity was invented through mass-market advertising, much of it used on products like olive oil.
Global demand for olive oil has steadily been increasing since World War II. A big driver of demand has been the rapid spread of pizzerias. Pizza became big business in the United States after the war with many soldiers having sampled it while stationed in Italy. The growth of pizza chains also hastened the spread of pizza, all requiring greater amounts of oil.
American home cooks also began consuming more olive oil in the post-war period. By then, olive oil was beginning to lose its connotation as an ethnic food and general-purpose supermarkets began stocking it. Also bolstering olive consumption was the Seven Countries Study, the long-term study of human health, more commonly known for the term "Mediterranean diet" and its contributions to longevity. The diet fad, along with an interest in finding "healthy" fats and oils, led more Americans to seek out olive oil.
Olive Oil in Modern Italy
Italy had been the largest producer of olive oil until 1985, according to Frabrizia Lanza in Olive: A Global History. In that year, a deep freeze damaged many Italian olive groves, and from then on, Spain became the leading producer.
Within Italy, Puglia remains the largest producer of olive oil, accounting for 38 percent of production. Cultivation is intensive agriculture with some 50 million olive trees. The next highest producing region is Calabria, producing 27 percent, and Campania, Sicily, Abruzzo, Lazio, and Tuscany all also contribute a small percentage of oil.
Despite the domestic production, Italy imports a huge amount of oil. Very little of this is consumed locally. Instead, the imported oil is bottled and packaged for export with labels like "bottled in Italy." Today, as in the time of ancient Rome, much of the oil comes from Spain.
As long as the oil meets Italian requirements for Extra Virgin and Virgin il, it can legally be claimed as bottled in Italy. Inspectors at the port of entry inspect the oil to ensure it meets the minimum qualities, particularly the acidity level. At this point, oil often will be downgraded, but spot checks are not enough. Oil producers must also submit to inspection and keep records of oil produced onsite and delivered. Inspectors monitor all of this with sophisticated tracking software.
Olive oil is measured and rated by acidity levels. According to European Union rules, Extra virgin olive oil has less than 1 percent acidity, virgin olive oil less than 2 percent, and Lamposte oil over 2 percent. Typically, Italian extra virgin olive oil will be about .5 percent.
These rules haven't stopped scammers from selling fraudulent oil. In recent years there have been several scandals uncovered by Italian inspectors. Criminal organizations will work to circumvent rules, dye cheaper oil, and bottle low quality oil as virgin oil.
Rigorous inspections from the Italian regulators help prevent fraudulent oil from grocery store shelves. Even genuine oil can turn rancid over time though, so for the best tasting oil, choose bottles with a clear harvest date within the last year or two, focus on smaller producers with a clearly labeled point of origin, and protect oil from sunlight, which can cause it to break down.